The Ultimate Biomarkers Guide (with 100+ Biomarkers explained)

Learn to Decode Your Blood Test Results.

Oct 01, 2024

Hey,

From now on, Augmented Sapiens will focus on tools, routines, and strategies to maximize health, performance, and longevity.

Every Tuesday, you will receive an in-depth exploration of a specific topic, keeping you up-to-date with the latest scientific insights.

On Fridays, you'll get a summary of last week's most popular videos and podcasts on health and longevity, along with highlights from the latest scientific research.

For the first edition of our new format, we’ll be diving deep into the most impactful blood biomarkers for health, performance, and longevity.

A biomarker is a measurable indicator of a biological state or process in the body, often used to assess health or detect disease.

The goal is for you to be able to refer back to this post whenever you need help interpreting your blood test results.

In this article, we cover over 100 biomarkers, carefully curated by studying the most commonly tested indicators from top blood testing companies such as InsideTracker, Vitality Blueprint, Life Force, and Functional Health, based on their most comprehensive offerings.

Please note that we have not included biomarkers for STDs or those that are not derived from blood tests (such as urinalysis, saliva, stool, sweat, or breath tests). These will be covered separately in future editions of Augmented Sapiens.

We aimed to make this as comprehensive as possible, but feel free to reach out if you’ve been tested for something that we missed.

We are always happy to hear from our readers!

Without further ado, let’s dive into the world of blood biomarkers!

Disclaimer: The information provided in this newsletter is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice. We are not doctors, and the content is not intended to replace professional medical consultation, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the guidance of your physician or other qualified healthcare providers with any questions you may have regarding your health, performance, or longevity.

We've organized the biomarkers into clear categories, but remember—these biomarkers are dynamic! Most aren't confined to just one organ; they have a powerful influence across multiple organs and functions throughout your body.

A. White Blood Cells (13)

White blood cells (WBCs) are the body's primary defense mechanism against infections and foreign invaders. These cells are essential for maintaining immune function and preventing illness. Elevated or low WBC counts can indicate infections, immune disorders, or chronic inflammation, impacting overall health, performance, and longevity.

B. Red Blood Cells (9)

Red blood cells (RBCs) are responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. Healthy RBC function ensures efficient oxygen delivery to tissues, supporting energy production, physical performance, and cellular health. Abnormal RBC levels can lead to fatigue, weakness, and serious conditions like anemia or polycythemia, affecting both vitality and longevity.

C. Iron Metabolism (4)

Iron metabolism involves the regulation and utilization of iron, a critical mineral for producing hemoglobin in red blood cells. Balanced iron levels are key to maintaining energy, immune function, and cognitive performance. Iron deficiency or overload can severely affect health, leading to anemia or organ damage, thereby impacting long-term health and performance.

D. Cardiovascular Risk & Lipid Panel (8)

The cardiovascular risk and lipid panel evaluates cholesterol, triglycerides, and other fats in the blood, which are critical markers for heart health. Maintaining optimal lipid levels reduces the risk of heart disease, stroke, and atherosclerosis, promoting longevity and cardiovascular performance.

E. Blood Sugar and Insulin (4)

Blood sugar and insulin markers monitor glucose levels and insulin sensitivity, crucial for energy regulation, metabolic health, and preventing conditions like diabetes. Balanced blood sugar and insulin improve physical performance, support weight management, and enhance longevity by reducing the risk of metabolic diseases.

F. Essential Vitamin (5)

Essential vitamins such as vitamins A, B12, D, E, and folate play critical roles in various bodily functions, including immune support, bone health, brain function, and cellular repair. Adequate vitamin levels optimize performance and help prevent chronic diseases, supporting longevity and overall well-being.

G. Electrolyte and Mineral (11)

Electrolytes and minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, are vital for nerve function, muscle contraction, hydration, and maintaining cellular health. Imbalances can lead to poor performance, fatigue, and even serious health issues, affecting overall vitality and longevity.

H. Essential Fatty Acids (3)

Essential fatty acids like Omega-3 and Omega-6 are important for brain function, inflammation control, and cardiovascular health. Maintaining the right balance between these fats supports cognitive performance, reduces inflammation, and promotes heart health, all of which contribute to long-term wellness.

I. Kidney Function (5)

Kidney function markers, such as creatinine and eGFR, help assess the kidneys' ability to filter waste from the blood. Healthy kidneys are essential for detoxification, electrolyte balance, and blood pressure regulation, all of which are critical for long-term health and optimal performance.

J. Liver Function (8)

Liver function tests measure enzymes and proteins that reflect the liver’s ability to process toxins and produce vital substances like bile. A well-functioning liver is key to detoxification, digestion, and hormone regulation, impacting overall health, longevity, and metabolic efficiency.

K. Pancreas Function (2)

Pancreatic enzymes such as amylase and lipase are critical for digesting fats and carbohydrates. Healthy pancreatic function supports digestion, nutrient absorption, and blood sugar control, which are essential for sustained energy, performance, and longevity.

L. Thyroid Function (5)

Thyroid function tests assess hormone levels that regulate metabolism, energy production, and growth. A well-functioning thyroid ensures efficient metabolic processes, supporting weight management, energy levels, and cognitive function, all contributing to long-term health and performance.

M. Hormones & Reproductive Health (12)

Hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol are crucial for reproductive health, stress response, and overall metabolic function. Balanced hormone levels support physical performance, mood regulation, and long-term health, promoting vitality and longevity.

N. Prostate Health (2)

Prostate health markers like PSA and Free PSA help monitor prostate function and detect potential issues like prostate cancer or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Maintaining a healthy prostate is vital for male reproductive health, urinary function, and longevity.

O. Inflammation & Tissue Damage (5)

Markers like hsCRP, ESR, and LDH indicate the presence of inflammation and tissue damage. Chronic inflammation is linked to a variety of diseases, including heart disease, cancer, and autoimmune conditions. Managing inflammation is key to reducing disease risk and promoting long-term health and performance.

P. Heavy Metals Toxicity (5)

Heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and nickel can accumulate in the body and lead to toxicity. Prolonged exposure can result in organ damage, neurological disorders, and cancer. Monitoring heavy metal levels is essential for reducing toxicity and safeguarding long-term health and performance.

A. White Blood Cells

1. Monocytes

What it is: Monocytes are a type of white blood cell (WBC) that play a crucial role in the immune system by helping to fight infections and removing foreign particles, dead cells, and pathogens from the bloodstream. They mature into macrophages and dendritic cells, which help remove cellular debris and present antigens to T cells, initiating the immune response.

Normal Range:

Absolute count: 0.2 - 0.8 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated monocyte levels (monocytosis) may indicate chronic inflammation, infections (such as tuberculosis), autoimmune diseases, or certain cancers, such as leukemia. Persistent high levels can suggest underlying chronic conditions requiring medical investigation.

Too little: Low monocyte levels (monocytopenia) could suggest bone marrow suppression, blood disorders, or the effects of certain medications like chemotherapy. This can impair the immune system's ability to fight infections.

2. Monocytes %

What it is: Monocytes % refers to the percentage of monocytes among the total white blood cells. This percentage can help assess the balance of different types of immune cells in the body.

Normal Range:

Percentage: 2 - 8% of total WBCs

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: A high percentage of monocytes may suggest a response to chronic inflammation, infection, or certain blood disorders. It can signal a shift in immune cell production due to an ongoing immune response.

Too little: A low percentage of monocytes may indicate bone marrow suppression or an imbalance in white blood cell types, potentially reducing the immune system's ability to clean up debris and fight pathogens effectively.

3. Lymphocytes

What it is: Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that are central to the immune system, particularly in fighting viral infections. They include B cells (which produce antibodies), T cells (which attack infected cells), and natural killer (NK) cells (which target virus-infected and cancer cells).

Normal Range:

Absolute count: 1.0 - 3.0 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated lymphocyte levels (lymphocytosis) may occur during viral infections, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or certain cancers like leukemia. Prolonged lymphocytosis could be a sign of chronic infection or immune disorders.

Too little: Low lymphocyte levels (lymphocytopenia) can result from autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiency disorders (e.g., HIV), or the effects of chemotherapy or corticosteroids. This weakens the immune response and makes the body more susceptible to infections.

4. Lymphocytes %

What it is: Lymphocytes % measures the proportion of lymphocytes in the total white blood cell count. This helps assess the immune response balance, especially during infections or immune disorders.

Normal Range:

Percentage: 20 - 40% of total WBCs

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: A higher-than-normal percentage of lymphocytes can indicate an ongoing viral infection or certain cancers (like lymphocytic leukemia), suggesting an overactive immune response.

Too little: A lower percentage of lymphocytes may suggest immunodeficiency or conditions that suppress the immune system, leaving the body vulnerable to infections and malignancies.

5. Eosinophils

What it is: Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell involved in allergic reactions and fighting parasitic infections. They play a role in modulating immune responses, particularly in conditions like asthma, allergic rhinitis, and certain skin disorders.

Normal Range:

Absolute count: 0.0 - 0.5 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated eosinophil levels (eosinophilia) are often seen in allergic reactions (e.g., asthma, eczema) or parasitic infections. Chronic eosinophilia can also indicate autoimmune diseases or certain cancers, such as Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

Too little: Low eosinophil levels (eosinopenia) may be seen in acute infections, stress responses, or with corticosteroid use. This may reduce the body's ability to manage allergic responses and fight parasitic infections.

6. Eosinophils %

What it is: Eosinophils % refers to the percentage of eosinophils in the total white blood cell count. This is particularly useful in diagnosing allergic conditions or parasitic infections.

Normal Range:

Percentage: 1 - 4% of total WBCs

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: A high percentage of eosinophils often suggests an ongoing allergic reaction, parasitic infection, or autoimmune disorder. Persistently elevated levels can lead to tissue damage, especially in organs like the lungs or gastrointestinal tract.

Too little: A low percentage of eosinophils may indicate stress or the use of corticosteroids, which can suppress immune function.

7. Basophils

What it is: Basophils are a type of white blood cell involved in the inflammatory response, particularly during allergic reactions. They release histamine and other chemicals that help mediate allergic responses and inflammation.

Normal Range:

Absolute count: 0.0 - 0.2 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated basophil levels (basophilia) can be seen in allergic reactions, chronic inflammation, or blood disorders like myeloproliferative diseases. Persistent basophilia may indicate chronic allergic or inflammatory conditions.

Too little: Low basophil levels (basopenia) can occur in acute infections, stress, or as a result of corticosteroid use. Reduced basophil levels may impair the body's ability to initiate an appropriate inflammatory response during allergic reactions.

8. Basophils %

What it is: Basophils % measures the proportion of basophils in the total white blood cell count. This helps assess the body's response to allergens and inflammation.

Normal Range:

Percentage: 0 - 1% of total WBCs

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: A high percentage of basophils may indicate chronic allergic reactions, chronic inflammation, or blood disorders such as chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).

Too little: A low percentage of basophils is often seen in acute infections or stress situations and may reflect a diminished ability to respond to allergens.

9. Neutrophils

What it is: Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell and are the first responders to bacterial infections. They help fight infections by engulfing bacteria and releasing enzymes that kill microorganisms.

Normal Range:

Absolute count: 2.0 - 7.5 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated neutrophil levels (neutrophilia) are commonly seen in bacterial infections, stress, inflammation, or as a response to certain medications like corticosteroids. Chronic neutrophilia may also indicate an underlying inflammatory condition or certain types of cancer.

Too little: Low neutrophil levels (neutropenia) can result from bone marrow suppression, chemotherapy, autoimmune disorders, or certain infections (e.g., HIV). Neutropenia increases the risk of infections and can lead to life-threatening complications if not managed properly.

10. Neutrophils %

What it is: Neutrophils % measures the proportion of neutrophils in the total white blood cell count. It is useful for assessing the body's response to infection, particularly bacterial infections.

Normal Range:

Percentage: 40 - 70% of total WBCs

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: A high percentage of neutrophils often suggests bacterial infection, stress, or chronic inflammation. Persistently elevated neutrophil percentages may indicate more serious conditions like chronic inflammatory disorders or myeloproliferative diseases.

Too little: A low percentage of neutrophils may indicate bone marrow suppression, severe infections, or autoimmune diseases. It may also point to an increased risk of infections due to weakened immune defenses.

11. White Blood Cell Count (WBCs)

What it is: The WBC count measures the total number of white blood cells in a given volume of blood. These cells are essential for defending the body against infections, foreign invaders, and diseases.

Normal Range:

Total count: 4.0 - 11.0 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated WBC count (leukocytosis) may indicate infections, inflammation, allergic responses, stress, or certain blood cancers like leukemia. Persistent leukocytosis requires further investigation to determine the underlying cause.

Too little: Low WBC count (leukopenia) can occur due to bone marrow suppression, autoimmune diseases, severe infections, or the side effects of chemotherapy or radiation. This increases the risk of infections and makes it harder for the body to fight diseases.

12. Immature Granulocytes

What it is: Immature granulocytes are immature white blood cells that are normally present in very low numbers in healthy individuals. Their presence in blood typically indicates an early response to infection, inflammation, or bone marrow stress.

Normal Range:

Absolute count: 0.0 - 0.1 x 10^9/L

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range (very low or zero).

Too much: Elevated levels of immature granulocytes may indicate a severe infection, bone marrow disorders, or leukemia. The presence of immature granulocytes in the blood can be a sign of increased bone marrow activity due to an acute immune response.

Too little: Low levels of immature granulocytes are normal since they are typically absent from peripheral blood in healthy individuals. Abnormally low levels might not be clinically significant on their own but should be evaluated in the context of other blood counts.

13. Immature Granulocytes %

What it is: Immature granulocytes % reflects the percentage of immature granulocytes in the total white blood cell count, indicating bone marrow response to stress or infection.

Normal Range:

Percentage: 0 - 1% of total WBCs

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range (very low or zero).

Too much: A high percentage of immature granulocytes suggests an acute infection, inflammation, or bone marrow stress, and may be seen in cases of severe infection or leukemia.

Too little: Low or absent immature granulocytes is normal, indicating a healthy immune system with no excessive demand for new white blood cells.

B. Red Blood Cells

1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

What it is: Red blood cells (RBCs) are the cells in the blood that carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation. The number of RBCs is a critical measure of overall blood health and oxygen-carrying capacity.

Normal Range:

Men: 4.7 - 6.1 million cells per microliter (µL)
Women: 4.2 - 5.4 million cells/µL
Children: Varies by age.

Optimal Range: Generally within the normal range.

Too much: Elevated RBC count (polycythemia) can result from conditions such as dehydration, heart disease, or bone marrow disorders like polycythemia vera. This can increase blood viscosity, leading to a higher risk of blood clots, strokes, and heart attacks.

Too little: Low RBC count (anemia) can indicate insufficient oxygen delivery to tissues, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, and dizziness. Severe anemia can cause heart problems or organ damage.

2. Hemoglobin (Hb)

What it is: Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells. It binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it to tissues throughout the body. Hemoglobin levels are a key indicator of the blood’s ability to carry oxygen.

Normal Range:

Men: 13.5 - 17.5 grams per deciliter (g/dL)
Women: 12.0 - 15.5 g/dL
Children: 11 - 16 g/dL, depending on age.

Optimal Range: Usually within the normal range, but varies with altitude, age, and health status.

Too much: High hemoglobin levels (polycythemia) may suggest dehydration, heart disease, or overproduction of red blood cells due to conditions like polycythemia vera. High hemoglobin increases blood viscosity and may raise the risk of blood clots and cardiovascular events.

Too little: Low hemoglobin levels (anemia) indicate insufficient oxygen being delivered to tissues, causing fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath. Severe anemia may lead to heart problems or organ failure.

3. Hematocrit (Hct)

What it is: Hematocrit is the proportion of red blood cells to the total volume of blood. It is a key measure of blood's capacity to carry oxygen and is used to assess overall blood health.

Normal Range:

Men: 38.3% - 48.6%
Women: 35.5% - 44.9%

Optimal Range: Ideally near the middle of the normal range.

Too much: Elevated hematocrit levels may indicate dehydration, lung disease, or conditions like polycythemia vera that cause overproduction of red blood cells. High hematocrit increases blood thickness, raising the risk of clots, stroke, and heart attacks.

Too little: Low hematocrit levels often indicate anemia, chronic diseases, or nutritional deficiencies such as iron or vitamin B12 deficiency. Low hematocrit reduces the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity, leading to fatigue and weakness.

4. Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)

What it is: MCV measures the average size of red blood cells. It helps in diagnosing different types of anemia, as larger or smaller red blood cells may indicate specific underlying conditions.

Normal Range: 80 - 100 femtoliters (fL).

Optimal Range: Near the center of the normal range.

Too much: High MCV (macrocytosis) indicates that red blood cells are larger than normal. This is commonly seen in vitamin B12 or folate deficiency anemia, liver disease, or hypothyroidism.

Too little: Low MCV (microcytosis) suggests that red blood cells are smaller than normal, often due to iron deficiency anemia or thalassemia.

5. Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH)

What it is: MCH measures the average amount of hemoglobin in a red blood cell. It helps classify different types of anemia and indicates whether red blood cells are carrying enough hemoglobin.

Normal Range: 27 - 33 picograms (pg).

Optimal Range: Around the middle of the normal range.

Too much: High MCH can be seen in macrocytic anemia, often due to vitamin B12 or folate deficiency. In this condition, red blood cells are fewer but larger, and they contain more hemoglobin per cell.

Too little: Low MCH is common in microcytic anemia, usually caused by iron deficiency or chronic diseases. This results in smaller red blood cells that carry less hemoglobin, leading to reduced oxygen delivery to tissues.

6. Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC)

What it is: MCHC measures the average concentration of hemoglobin in a red blood cell. This marker helps in diagnosing different types of anemia and assesses the efficiency of oxygen transport in the blood.

Normal Range: 32 - 36 grams per deciliter (g/dL).

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: High MCHC (hyperchromia) can be seen in conditions such as hereditary spherocytosis, where red blood cells are more fragile and prone to breaking. It may also indicate dehydration or an artifact in the test.

Too little: Low MCHC (hypochromia) suggests that red blood cells have less hemoglobin, which is commonly seen in iron deficiency anemia. This reduces the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity.

7. Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW)

What it is: RDW measures the variation in the size of red blood cells. It is used to help diagnose types of anemia and can provide insights into the uniformity of red blood cell size.

Normal Range: 11.5% - 14.5%.

Optimal Range: Within the normal range.

Too much: High RDW indicates greater variation in red blood cell size, which is commonly seen in conditions such as iron deficiency anemia, vitamin B12 or folate deficiency anemia, and recent blood loss. This variability can impair the blood’s ability to transport oxygen efficiently.

Too little: Low RDW is uncommon and suggests that red blood cells are uniform in size. This is not usually associated with a specific condition, but low variability can sometimes be seen in chronic diseases.

8. Platelets

What it is: Platelets are cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting. They help prevent excessive bleeding by forming clots at the site of injury.

Normal Range: 150,000 - 450,000 platelets per microliter (µL).

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: High platelet levels (thrombocytosis) may increase the risk of clot formation, which can lead to conditions like stroke, heart attack, or deep vein thrombosis (DVT). It may also indicate inflammation, infection, or certain cancers.

Too little: Low platelet levels (thrombocytopenia) increase the risk of excessive bleeding and may result from bone marrow disorders, autoimmune diseases, or side effects of certain medications. Severe thrombocytopenia can lead to spontaneous bleeding and is a medical emergency.

9. Mean Platelet Volume (MPV)

What it is: MPV measures the average size of platelets in the blood. It is an indicator of platelet production in the bone marrow and platelet function.

Normal Range: 7.5 - 11.5 femtoliters (fL).

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: High MPV suggests that larger platelets are being produced, which can be seen in conditions like thrombocytopenia, where the bone marrow compensates by releasing larger, immature platelets. High MPV is also associated with cardiovascular disease risk.

Too little: Low MPV indicates smaller platelets, which may be less effective at clotting. This can occur in conditions like aplastic anemia or chronic liver disease. Low MPV may also indicate platelet aging or bone marrow suppression.

C. Iron Metabolism

1. Iron

What it is: Iron is an essential mineral that plays a key role in the production of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood, and myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscles. Iron is also involved in various metabolic processes, enzyme function, and immune response.

Normal Range:

Men: 65 - 176 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL)
Women: 50 - 170 µg/dL

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range, but varies depending on individual health status.

Too much: High iron levels (hemochromatosis) can lead to iron overload, causing damage to organs such as the liver, heart, and pancreas. Iron overload increases the risk of conditions like cirrhosis, liver cancer, heart failure, and diabetes.

Too little: Low iron levels (iron deficiency) can lead to iron deficiency anemia, characterized by fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and dizziness. If left untreated, severe iron deficiency can result in organ dysfunction and cognitive impairments.

2. Ferritin

What it is: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in the body and releases it when needed. Ferritin levels reflect the amount of stored iron, making it a key marker for assessing total body iron stores. Ferritin is often used to diagnose iron deficiency or overload.

Normal Range:

Men: 24 - 336 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)
Women: 11 - 307 ng/mL

Optimal Range:

Men: 50 - 150 ng/mL
Women: 30 - 120 ng/mL

Too much: Elevated ferritin levels can indicate iron overload (hemochromatosis), liver disease, chronic inflammation, or infections. High ferritin levels can result in oxidative stress, damaging tissues and leading to organ damage, particularly in the liver, heart, and pancreas.

Too little: Low ferritin levels suggest iron deficiency, which can lead to iron deficiency anemia. Symptoms include fatigue, weakness, pale skin, and cognitive issues. Long-term iron deficiency can affect immune function, physical performance, and brain function.

3. Total Iron-Binding Capacity (TIBC)

What it is: TIBC measures the blood's capacity to bind and transport iron. It reflects the amount of transferrin (the main iron transport protein) available to bind to iron. TIBC is often used in conjunction with serum iron and ferritin to assess iron status.

Normal Range:

Normal: 240 - 450 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL)

Optimal Range: Typically within the normal range.

Too much: High TIBC levels indicate the body’s need for more iron, which is common in iron deficiency. High TIBC suggests that there is a lot of unbound transferrin, signaling that iron stores are depleted.

Too little: Low TIBC levels may indicate iron overload (hemochromatosis) or chronic inflammatory conditions where transferrin production is suppressed. Low TIBC levels mean there is a reduced capacity for the blood to carry more iron, suggesting that iron stores are already saturated.

4. Transferrin Saturation (TS)

What it is: Transferrin saturation (TS) is the percentage of transferrin that is bound to iron. It is calculated using serum iron and TIBC. TS is a key indicator of the body’s iron status and helps identify iron deficiency or overload.

Normal Range:

Normal: 20 - 50%

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 25 - 35% (varies slightly by individual and lab).

Too much: High transferrin saturation (above 50%) indicates iron overload, which can be seen in conditions like hereditary hemochromatosis. This increases the risk of iron deposition in organs, leading to potential organ damage such as cirrhosis, diabetes, or heart disease.

Too little: Low transferrin saturation (below 20%) suggests iron deficiency, meaning that too little iron is being transported in the blood. This can lead to iron deficiency anemia, which causes fatigue, weakness, and other symptoms associated with inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues.

D. Cardiovascular Risk & Lipid Panel

1. Total Cholesterol

What it is: Total cholesterol is the overall measure of cholesterol in your blood, including low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol. Cholesterol is essential for building cell membranes, producing hormones, and forming bile acids. However, high levels can contribute to heart disease.

Normal Range:

Desirable: Less than 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Below 180 mg/dL (for lower cardiovascular risk)

Too much: High total cholesterol (above 240 mg/dL) is associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis, heart disease, and stroke. Elevated levels of LDL cholesterol, in particular, contribute to plaque buildup in arteries.

Too little: Low total cholesterol (below 120 mg/dL) may be linked to malnutrition, liver disease, or certain types of cancer. Very low cholesterol levels have been associated with increased risks for hemorrhagic stroke and depression.

2. HDL Cholesterol

What it is: High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol is often called "good" cholesterol because it helps transport cholesterol from the arteries back to the liver for excretion. Higher levels of HDL are protective against cardiovascular disease.

Normal Range:

Men: 40 mg/dL or higher
Women: 50 mg/dL or higher

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 60 mg/dL or higher (considered heart-protective)

Too much: Very high HDL levels (above 100 mg/dL) can be seen in some rare genetic conditions and may paradoxically increase cardiovascular risk in some cases, though the reason is not well understood.

Too little: Low HDL levels (below 40 mg/dL for men and 50 mg/dL for women) are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease because HDL's protective function in clearing cholesterol is reduced.

3. LDL Cholesterol

What it is: Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol because high levels can lead to the buildup of plaque in the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease, heart attack, and stroke.

Normal Range:

Optimal: Less than 100 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Ideal for high-risk individuals: Less than 70 mg/dL

Too much: High LDL levels (above 160 mg/dL) increase the risk of plaque buildup in the arteries, leading to atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, and other cardiovascular conditions. Extremely high levels (above 190 mg/dL) can indicate familial hypercholesterolemia.

Too little: Low LDL levels (below 50 mg/dL) may be associated with conditions like hyperthyroidism, malnutrition, or liver disease. Very low levels could potentially be linked to an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke or other issues, although this is rare.

4. Triglycerides

What it is: Triglycerides are a type of fat found in the blood. When you eat, your body converts excess calories into triglycerides, which are stored in fat cells. Elevated triglycerides are a marker for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk.

Normal Range:

Desirable: Less than 150 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Below 100 mg/dL

Too much: High triglyceride levels (above 200 mg/dL) can contribute to atherosclerosis and are associated with an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and pancreatitis. Extremely high levels (above 500 mg/dL) increase the risk of acute pancreatitis.

Too little: Low triglyceride levels (below 50 mg/dL) are uncommon but could indicate malnutrition, hyperthyroidism, or malabsorption syndromes.

5. Apolipoprotein B (ApoB)

What it is: Apolipoprotein B is a protein found in LDL and VLDL particles, which are the main cholesterol carriers in the blood. ApoB is a better predictor of cardiovascular risk than LDL cholesterol alone, as it reflects the number of atherogenic particles present in the blood.

Normal Range:

Desirable: Less than 100 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Less than 90 mg/dL (for high-risk individuals)

Too much: Elevated ApoB levels indicate a higher number of atherogenic particles and are strongly associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, and stroke.

Too little: Low ApoB levels are generally protective against cardiovascular disease. However, very low levels could indicate malnutrition or certain genetic conditions like hypobetalipoproteinemia.

6. Lp(a) [Lipoprotein(a)]

What it is: Lipoprotein(a) is a type of lipoprotein similar to LDL but with an added protein called apolipoprotein(a). Elevated Lp(a) is an inherited risk factor for cardiovascular disease and is particularly associated with increased risk for atherosclerosis and heart attack.

Normal Range:

Desirable: Less than 30 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Below 10 mg/dL

Too much: High Lp(a) levels (above 50 mg/dL) significantly increase the risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack, and stroke. Elevated Lp(a) also increases the risk of valve calcification and cardiovascular events even in individuals with otherwise normal cholesterol levels.

Too little: Very low Lp(a) levels are generally not a cause for concern and may be associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease.

7. Non-HDL Cholesterol

What it is: Non-HDL cholesterol represents total cholesterol minus HDL cholesterol. This includes all "bad" cholesterol particles, such as LDL, VLDL, and intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), and is a strong predictor of cardiovascular risk.

Normal Range:

Desirable: Less than 130 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Below 100 mg/dL (for high-risk individuals)

Too much: Elevated non-HDL cholesterol levels indicate a higher risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, as it includes all atherogenic particles. Higher levels correlate with increased cardiovascular events.

Too little: Low non-HDL cholesterol levels are protective against cardiovascular disease and are not typically concerning unless accompanied by other signs of malnutrition or illness.

8. VLDL Cholesterol

What it is: Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol is a type of lipoprotein that carries triglycerides in the blood. Like LDL, VLDL can contribute to plaque buildup in the arteries and increase the risk of heart disease.

Normal Range:

Desirable: 5 - 40 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Less than 30 mg/dL

Too much: High VLDL levels indicate a higher amount of triglycerides in the blood, which increases the risk of atherosclerosis, heart disease, and stroke. Elevated VLDL is a sign of metabolic syndrome and is often seen in conjunction with high triglycerides.

Too little: Low VLDL levels are generally protective and are not associated with significant health concerns.

E. Blood Sugar and Insulin

1. Blood Glucose

What it is: Blood glucose refers to the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood. It is the primary source of energy for the body’s cells, and maintaining optimal levels is critical for proper metabolic function. Blood glucose is measured in two primary ways: fasting blood glucose (measured after not eating for at least 8 hours) and random blood glucose.

Normal Range:

Fasting: 70 - 99 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)
Postprandial (after eating): Less than 140 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Fasting: 70 - 85 mg/dL
Postprandial: Less than 120 mg/dL

Too much: High blood glucose (hyperglycemia) is typically seen in diabetes and prediabetes. Chronic hyperglycemia can lead to serious complications such as nerve damage, kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, and retinopathy. Acute hyperglycemia may cause symptoms like excessive thirst, frequent urination, and fatigue.

Too little: Low blood glucose (hypoglycemia) can result from excessive insulin, certain medications, or prolonged fasting. Symptoms include dizziness, confusion, sweating, and in severe cases, seizures or loss of consciousness.

2. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)

What it is: Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) measures the average blood glucose levels over the past 2-3 months by assessing the percentage of hemoglobin (a protein in red blood cells) that is glycated (bound to glucose). It is a key marker for long-term blood sugar control and is commonly used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.

Normal Range:

Non-Diabetic: Less than 5.7%

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 4.8 - 5.3%
Diabetic Control Target: Below 7% (for most diabetics)

Too much: Elevated HbA1c levels (above 6.5%) indicate poorly controlled blood sugar over time and are used to diagnose diabetes. High HbA1c levels increase the risk of diabetic complications, including neuropathy, nephropathy, and retinopathy.

Too little: Very low HbA1c levels are generally uncommon but could indicate hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) or overly aggressive diabetes treatment, which could result in frequent hypoglycemic episodes.

3. Glycomark

What it is: GlycoMark measures 1,5-anhydroglucitol, a marker that reflects postprandial glucose spikes (after-meal blood sugar levels) over the past one to two weeks. It is particularly useful for detecting short-term variations in blood glucose levels that may not be captured by HbA1c. GlycoMark is most commonly used in people with diabetes to assess glucose variability.

Normal Range:

Non-Diabetic: 10 - 30 micrograms per milliliter (µg/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Above 10 µg/mL

Too much: Higher GlycoMark levels generally indicate better blood sugar control, reflecting fewer postprandial glucose spikes.

Too little: Low GlycoMark levels (below 10 µg/mL) suggest frequent postprandial hyperglycemia (after-meal blood sugar spikes). Persistent glucose spikes contribute to cardiovascular disease risk and other complications related to poorly controlled diabetes.

4. Insulin

What it is: Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that helps regulate blood glucose by allowing cells to take in glucose from the bloodstream. Insulin levels can be measured to assess insulin resistance, pancreatic function, or to help diagnose and monitor diabetes.

Normal Range:

Fasting: 2.6 - 24.9 micro-units per milliliter (µU/mL)

Optimal Range:

Fasting: 2 - 10 µU/mL (lower end of normal indicates good insulin sensitivity)

Too much: High insulin levels (hyperinsulinemia) are commonly associated with insulin resistance, a precursor to type 2 diabetes. It can also be seen in conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and may lead to metabolic syndrome, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases.

Too little: Low insulin levels are seen in type 1 diabetes (due to the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells) or in advanced type 2 diabetes when the pancreas can no longer produce enough insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels.

5. C-Peptide

What it is: C-peptide is a byproduct of insulin production and is released in equal amounts when proinsulin is cleaved to form insulin. Measuring C-peptide helps assess the body’s ability to produce insulin, and it is especially useful in distinguishing between type 1 and type 2 diabetes or evaluating insulin production in people with diabetes.

Normal Range:

Fasting: 0.8 - 3.1 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)

Optimal Range:

Fasting: 1.1 - 2.9 ng/mL

Too much: Elevated C-peptide levels typically indicate high insulin production, as seen in type 2 diabetes or insulin resistance. It may also indicate insulinoma, a rare insulin-secreting tumor. High C-peptide levels can signal that the pancreas is overcompensating for insulin resistance.

Too little: Low C-peptide levels indicate reduced insulin production, which is common in type 1 diabetes or late-stage type 2 diabetes. This can also be seen in people with pancreatic damage or after a pancreatectomy.

F. Essential Vitamin

1. Vitamin A (Retinol)

What it is: Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for vision, immune function, and cell growth. It plays a critical role in maintaining healthy skin, teeth, and skeletal tissue. Vitamin A also helps produce pigments in the retina, essential for good vision, particularly in low light.

Normal Range:

Adults: 0.3 - 0.8 milligrams per liter (mg/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 0.4 - 0.6 mg/L

Too much: High vitamin A levels (hypervitaminosis A) can lead to toxicity, resulting in symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, headache, skin irritation, joint pain, and, in severe cases, liver damage. Chronic toxicity can cause bone thinning and birth defects.

Too little: Low vitamin A levels can result in night blindness and may contribute to a higher risk of infections, as vitamin A is crucial for a healthy immune system. Prolonged deficiency can lead to more serious conditions, including xerophthalmia, which can cause blindness.

2. Vitamin B9 (Folate/Folic Acid)

What it is: Vitamin B9, also known as folate (naturally occurring) or folic acid (synthetic form), is a water-soluble vitamin critical for DNA synthesis, cell division, and proper brain function. Folate is especially important during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects in the developing fetus.

Normal Range:

Adults: 2.7 - 17.0 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 10 - 15 ng/mL

Too much: Excess folate is rare because it is water-soluble and excreted in urine. However, excessively high levels may mask a vitamin B12 deficiency, which could lead to nerve damage if left untreated.

Too little: Folate deficiency can result in megaloblastic anemia, characterized by large, immature red blood cells, and may lead to fatigue, weakness, irritability, and shortness of breath. In pregnant women, folate deficiency increases the risk of birth defects such as spina bifida.

3. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

What it is: Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin that plays an essential role in red blood cell formation, neurological function, and DNA synthesis. It is primarily found in animal products like meat, fish, dairy, and eggs. Adequate B12 levels are necessary for maintaining healthy nerve cells and producing energy.

Normal Range:

Adults: 200 - 900 picograms per milliliter (pg/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 500 - 700 pg/mL

Too much: High vitamin B12 levels are usually not harmful since excess B12 is excreted in urine. However, very high levels can sometimes be linked to liver or kidney dysfunction, leukemia, or other blood disorders.

Too little: Low vitamin B12 levels can lead to megaloblastic anemia and neurological issues, including numbness, tingling in the hands and feet, memory problems, and even cognitive decline. A severe deficiency can cause irreversible nerve damage and brain function impairment.

4. Vitamin D (25-Hydroxyvitamin D)

What it is: Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for calcium absorption, bone health, immune function, and reducing inflammation. The body synthesizes vitamin D in response to sunlight exposure, but it can also be obtained from dietary sources and supplements.

Normal Range:

Adults: 20 - 50 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 30 - 50 ng/mL

Too much: High vitamin D levels (hypervitaminosis D) can lead to hypercalcemia (high calcium levels), which may cause nausea, vomiting, weakness, and kidney stones. In severe cases, it can lead to heart or kidney damage.

Too little: Vitamin D deficiency can lead to bone disorders such as rickets in children and osteomalacia or osteoporosis in adults. It is also associated with increased susceptibility to infections, fatigue, and depression, and may play a role in chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease and autoimmune disorders.

5. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

What it is: Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that helps protect cells from oxidative damage. It also supports immune function, skin health, and eye health. Vitamin E is found in foods like nuts, seeds, and green leafy vegetables.

Normal Range:

Adults: 5.5 - 17 milligrams per liter (mg/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 8 - 12 mg/L

Too much: Excessive vitamin E intake (usually from supplements) can interfere with blood clotting and increase the risk of hemorrhagic stroke or bleeding. Long-term high doses may also increase the risk of other health complications, including heart disease.

Too little: Vitamin E deficiency is rare but can occur in individuals with malabsorption issues or genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis. Deficiency may result in nerve and muscle damage, vision problems, immune impairment, and hemolytic anemia in severe cases.

G. Electrolyte and Mineral

1. Sodium (Na+)

What it is: Sodium is an essential electrolyte that helps regulate fluid balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle function. It plays a critical role in maintaining normal cell function by ensuring proper water distribution in the body.

Normal Range:

Adults: 135 - 145 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 137 - 142 mEq/L

Too much: High sodium levels (hypernatremia) can result from dehydration, excessive salt intake, or certain conditions like diabetes insipidus. It can cause symptoms such as confusion, muscle twitching, and seizures, and can lead to coma or death in severe cases.

Too little: Low sodium levels (hyponatremia) may result from excessive water intake, certain medications, or conditions like heart failure or kidney disease. Symptoms include headache, nausea, confusion, and in severe cases, seizures or coma.

2. Potassium (K+)

What it is: Potassium is a key electrolyte involved in nerve signaling, muscle contraction, and maintaining normal heart rhythms. It is also important for maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance within cells.

Normal Range:

Adults: 3.5 - 5.0 mEq/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 4.0 - 4.5 mEq/L

Too much: High potassium levels (hyperkalemia) can result from kidney disease, certain medications, or severe tissue damage. It can cause heart arrhythmias, muscle weakness, and in severe cases, cardiac arrest.

Too little: Low potassium levels (hypokalemia) can be caused by diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea, or insufficient dietary intake. Symptoms include muscle cramps, weakness, fatigue, and dangerous heart arrhythmias.

3. Chloride (Cl-)

What it is: Chloride is an electrolyte that helps maintain fluid balance, acid-base balance, and proper electrical activity in the cells. It is commonly measured alongside sodium and potassium to assess overall electrolyte balance.

Normal Range:

Adults: 96 - 106 mEq/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 98 - 104 mEq/L

Too much: High chloride levels (hyperchloremia) are often associated with dehydration, kidney dysfunction, or metabolic acidosis. Symptoms may include fatigue, weakness, and difficulty breathing.

Too little: Low chloride levels (hypochloremia) may result from vomiting, excessive sweating, or chronic lung disease. This can lead to metabolic alkalosis, causing symptoms like muscle twitching, weakness, and confusion.

4. Carbon Dioxide Total / Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

What it is: Bicarbonate is a buffer that helps maintain the pH balance in the blood. It is the primary form of carbon dioxide in the blood and is essential for acid-base balance, particularly in regulating metabolic acidosis and alkalosis.

Normal Range:

Adults: 23 - 30 mEq/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 24 - 28 mEq/L

Too much: High bicarbonate levels (metabolic alkalosis) may result from prolonged vomiting, excessive bicarbonate intake, or certain kidney disorders. Symptoms include confusion, muscle twitching, and prolonged muscle spasms (tetany).

Too little: Low bicarbonate levels (metabolic acidosis) can occur with conditions such as chronic kidney disease, severe diarrhea, or lactic acidosis. This can lead to rapid breathing, fatigue, confusion, and, in severe cases, shock or coma.

5. Calcium (Ca2+)

What it is: Calcium is a vital mineral involved in bone health, muscle function, nerve transmission, and blood clotting. It is the most abundant mineral in the body, with the majority stored in bones and teeth.

Normal Range:

Adults: 8.5 - 10.5 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 9.0 - 10.0 mg/dL

Too much: High calcium levels (hypercalcemia) may be caused by hyperparathyroidism, cancer, or excessive vitamin D intake. Symptoms include fatigue, confusion, nausea, constipation, and in severe cases, kidney stones or heart arrhythmias.

Too little: Low calcium levels (hypocalcemia) can be due to vitamin D deficiency, hypoparathyroidism, or chronic kidney disease. Symptoms include muscle cramps, spasms, tingling in the fingers, and severe cases can lead to convulsions or cardiac arrest.

6. Magnesium (Mg2+)

What it is: Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in the body, including muscle and nerve function, blood pressure regulation, and energy production. It also plays a critical role in bone health and cardiovascular function.

Normal Range:

Adults: 1.7 - 2.2 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 2.0 - 2.2 mg/dL

Too much: High magnesium levels (hypermagnesemia) are rare but can occur in kidney failure or excessive supplementation. Symptoms include weakness, nausea, low blood pressure, and in severe cases, cardiac arrest.

Too little: Low magnesium levels (hypomagnesemia) can result from poor dietary intake, gastrointestinal disorders, or excessive alcohol consumption. Symptoms include muscle cramps, tremors, seizures, and abnormal heart rhythms.

7. Red Blood Cell (RBC) Magnesium

What it is: RBC magnesium measures the concentration of magnesium inside red blood cells, offering a more accurate reflection of long-term magnesium status than serum magnesium levels, which fluctuate more rapidly.

Normal Range:

Adults: 4.2 - 6.8 mg/dL (in RBCs)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 5.0 - 6.5 mg/dL

Too much: Elevated RBC magnesium levels are rare but can indicate excessive magnesium intake or supplementation. Symptoms may include low blood pressure, muscle weakness, and respiratory depression.

Too little: Low RBC magnesium levels suggest a chronic magnesium deficiency, which may lead to cardiovascular issues, muscle cramps, irritability, and a higher risk of conditions such as hypertension and arrhythmias.

8. Copper (Cu)

What it is: Copper is an essential trace mineral that helps with iron metabolism, the formation of red blood cells, and the maintenance of healthy nerves and immune function. It is also a key component of several antioxidant enzymes.

Normal Range:

Adults: 70 - 140 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 90 - 110 µg/dL

Too much: High copper levels (copper toxicity) may occur due to excessive supplementation or exposure to contaminated water. It can lead to nausea, abdominal pain, liver damage, and neurological symptoms. Wilson's disease, a genetic disorder, can cause copper to accumulate in organs.

Too little: Low copper levels can cause anemia, low white blood cell count, and neurological problems like numbness and tingling. Copper deficiency may result from malnutrition or malabsorption syndromes.

9. Phosphorus (Phosphate)

What it is: Phosphorus is a mineral that works with calcium to build strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in energy production, cell repair, and acid-base balance in the body.

Normal Range:

Adults: 2.5 - 4.5 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 3.0 - 4.0 mg/dL

Too much: High phosphorus levels (hyperphosphatemia) are often caused by kidney disease or excessive dietary intake. It can lead to calcification of soft tissues, such as the heart and kidneys, and exacerbate bone disorders like osteoporosis.

Too little: Low phosphorus levels (hypophosphatemia) can occur due to malnutrition, alcohol abuse, or certain medications. Symptoms include muscle weakness, bone pain, and in severe cases, respiratory failure or confusion.

10. Selenium (Se)

What it is: Selenium is a trace mineral that plays a crucial role in antioxidant defense, thyroid function, and immune response. It is a component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, which helps prevent cellular damage from free radicals.

Normal Range:

Adults: 70 - 150 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 100 - 130 ng/mL

Too much: High selenium levels (selenosis) can cause toxicity, leading to symptoms such as gastrointestinal upset, hair loss, white streaks on nails, fatigue, and in extreme cases, neurological damage.

Too little: Low selenium levels can compromise immune function, increase susceptibility to infections, and contribute to thyroid dysfunction, particularly in people with inadequate iodine intake. Severe deficiency may lead to Keshan disease, a potentially fatal heart condition.

11. Zinc (Zn)

What it is: Zinc is an essential trace mineral necessary for immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and cell division. It also supports the sense of taste and smell and is important for growth and development during pregnancy, infancy, and childhood.

Normal Range:

Adults: 70 - 120 µg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 90 - 110 µg/dL

Too much: Excessive zinc intake (usually from supplements) can interfere with copper absorption, leading to anemia and immune suppression. Symptoms of zinc toxicity include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and headaches.

Too little: Zinc deficiency can weaken the immune system, delay wound healing, impair taste and smell, and cause hair loss or skin rashes. Severe deficiency can lead to growth retardation and reproductive issues.

H. Essential Fatty Acids

1. Omega-3 Fatty Acids

What it is: Omega-3 fatty acids are essential polyunsaturated fats that the body cannot produce on its own, so they must be obtained from the diet. The primary types of Omega-3s are EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), and ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). They are crucial for brain function, reducing inflammation, heart health, and cell membrane structure.

Normal Range (based on percentage of total fatty acids in blood):

Optimal: 8% - 12% (Omega-3 Index)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 8% - 12% (of total fatty acids)

Too much: Excessive Omega-3 intake, particularly from supplements, can increase the risk of bleeding, impair immune response, and potentially lead to digestive issues like diarrhea. However, it is rare to reach toxic levels of Omega-3 from food alone.

Too little: Low Omega-3 levels are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, inflammation, cognitive decline, and mood disorders like depression. Deficiency can also negatively impact cell membrane health, reducing cellular function and immune responses.

2. Omega-6 Fatty Acids

What it is: Omega-6 fatty acids are also essential polyunsaturated fats obtained from the diet. The primary type of Omega-6 is linoleic acid (LA), which is converted to arachidonic acid (AA), a key inflammatory mediator. Omega-6 fats are involved in growth, immune function, and brain development but also contribute to inflammation when consumed in excess relative to Omega-3s.

Normal Range (based on percentage of total fatty acids in blood):

Optimal: 8% - 12% of total fatty acids

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 5% - 8% (of total fatty acids)

Too much: Excessive Omega-6 intake, particularly when not balanced by adequate Omega-3s, can promote inflammation, contributing to chronic diseases like heart disease, arthritis, and obesity. A high Omega-6 intake is common in modern Western diets due to the prevalence of vegetable oils.

Too little: Omega-6 deficiency is rare but can lead to skin problems, poor wound healing, hair loss, and immune dysfunction. Balanced levels are crucial for healthy cell membranes and normal development.

3. Omega-6 to Omega-3 Ratio

What it is: The Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio is a measure of the balance between pro-inflammatory Omega-6 fatty acids and anti-inflammatory Omega-3 fatty acids in the body. Historically, humans consumed Omega-6 and Omega-3 in a ratio close to 1:1. However, modern diets tend to be much higher in Omega-6, often with a ratio of 15:1 or more. A lower ratio is associated with better health outcomes.

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 1:1 to 4:1 (Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio)

Too much: A high Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio (above 10:1) is associated with increased inflammation and a higher risk of chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis, and certain cancers. Excessive Omega-6 relative to Omega-3 can exacerbate inflammatory responses in the body.

Too little: A very low Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio (below 1:1) is rare and may indicate an imbalanced intake of fats. While low ratios are generally associated with anti-inflammatory effects, extremely low Omega-6 levels can impair normal inflammatory responses needed for healing and immunity.

I. Kidney Function

1. Creatinine

What it is: Creatinine is a waste product produced by muscle metabolism, specifically from the breakdown of creatine, a molecule important for energy production in muscles. It is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and excreted in the urine, making it a useful marker for kidney function.

Normal Range:

Men: 0.7 - 1.3 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)
Women: 0.6 - 1.1 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Men: 0.8 - 1.2 mg/dL
Women: 0.6 - 1.0 mg/dL

Too much: Elevated creatinine levels may indicate impaired kidney function or kidney disease, as the kidneys are unable to filter creatinine effectively. It can also rise temporarily due to dehydration, intense exercise, or certain medications.

Too little: Low creatinine levels may be seen in individuals with low muscle mass, malnutrition, or severe liver disease. Low levels are generally not harmful but may indicate muscle wasting or a decrease in overall muscle mass.

2. Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR)

What it is: eGFR is an estimate of the glomerular filtration rate, which measures how well the kidneys are filtering blood. It is calculated based on creatinine levels, age, sex, and race. The eGFR is an important indicator of kidney function and is used to stage chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Normal Range:

Normal: Above 90 milliliters per minute per 1.73 m² (mL/min/1.73 m²)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 90 - 120 mL/min/1.73 m²

Too much: A high eGFR is rare but may indicate an overestimation in cases of very low muscle mass, leading to artificially low creatinine levels. This is generally not a concern in healthy individuals.

Too little: A low eGFR (below 60 mL/min/1.73 m²) indicates reduced kidney function and may suggest chronic kidney disease (CKD). Severe reductions in eGFR (below 30) indicate advanced CKD or kidney failure, which requires medical intervention.

3. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)

What it is: BUN measures the amount of nitrogen in the blood in the form of urea, a waste product formed in the liver from the breakdown of proteins. BUN is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and excreted in the urine, making it a useful marker for assessing kidney function and hydration status.

Normal Range:

Adults: 6 - 20 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 10 - 15 mg/dL

Too much: Elevated BUN levels can indicate kidney dysfunction, dehydration, heart failure, or a high-protein diet. It can also be caused by gastrointestinal bleeding, infection, or shock. Prolonged high BUN levels are associated with kidney damage or failure.

Too little: Low BUN levels may result from liver disease, malnutrition, or excessive hydration. Low BUN is generally less concerning but may indicate liver issues or a very low protein intake.

4. BUN/Creatinine Ratio

What it is: The BUN/Creatinine ratio compares the levels of blood urea nitrogen to creatinine to help identify the cause of kidney dysfunction. It is particularly useful for distinguishing between acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease, as well as determining whether a kidney problem is due to dehydration or other factors.

Normal Range:

Normal: 10:1 to 20:1

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 12:1 to 15:1

Too much: A high BUN/Creatinine ratio (above 20:1) is often seen in dehydration, heart failure, or gastrointestinal bleeding. It can also occur in conditions where there is an increased breakdown of proteins or reduced blood flow to the kidneys.

Too little: A low BUN/Creatinine ratio (below 10:1) may indicate liver disease, malnutrition, or a low-protein diet. It may also suggest conditions where creatinine production is increased, such as muscle injury or muscle breakdown (rhabdomyolysis).

5. Uric Acid

What it is: Uric acid is a waste product formed from the breakdown of purines, substances found in certain foods and naturally occurring in the body. Uric acid is normally excreted through the kidneys, but when levels become too high, it can lead to conditions such as gout or kidney stones.

Normal Range:

Men: 3.4 - 7.0 mg/dL
Women: 2.4 - 6.0 mg/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 3.5 - 5.5 mg/dL (for both men and women)

Too much: Elevated uric acid levels (hyperuricemia) can lead to gout, a painful inflammatory arthritis caused by the deposition of uric acid crystals in the joints. High uric acid can also contribute to kidney stones and may be associated with conditions such as metabolic syndrome, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease.

Too little: Low uric acid levels are uncommon but may be seen in liver disease, certain types of anemia, or exposure to toxic substances. Very low levels could indicate a rare inherited disorder that affects uric acid production.

J. Liver Function

1. Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)

What it is: ALT is an enzyme primarily found in the liver that plays a role in converting proteins into energy for the liver cells. When liver cells are damaged or inflamed, ALT is released into the bloodstream, making it a key marker for liver health.

Normal Range:

Adults: 7 - 56 units per liter (U/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 10 - 30 U/L

Too much: Elevated ALT levels usually indicate liver damage or inflammation, which can result from hepatitis, fatty liver disease, alcohol abuse, drug toxicity, or other liver conditions. Extremely high levels are commonly seen in acute liver injury or hepatitis.

Too little: Low ALT levels are generally not a cause for concern and may reflect normal liver function.

2. Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)

What it is: ALP is an enzyme found in various tissues throughout the body, with particularly high concentrations in the liver, bones, kidneys, and bile ducts. ALP is primarily measured to assess liver and bone health.

Normal Range:

Adults: 44 - 147 U/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 45 - 115 U/L

Too much: Elevated ALP levels may indicate liver disease, bile duct obstruction, or bone disorders like Paget’s disease or osteomalacia. Elevated levels may also occur in growing children or pregnant women due to increased bone turnover or placental production of ALP.

Too little: Low ALP levels may indicate malnutrition, zinc deficiency, hypothyroidism, or certain rare genetic disorders affecting bone or liver function.

3. Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)

What it is: AST is an enzyme found in the liver, heart, muscles, and other tissues. Similar to ALT, AST is released into the bloodstream when these tissues are damaged. It is often measured alongside ALT to assess liver health, but elevated AST can also indicate muscle injury or heart conditions.

Normal Range:

Adults: 10 - 40 U/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 10 - 30 U/L

Too much: Elevated AST levels can suggest liver damage, especially when accompanied by high ALT levels. It can also indicate heart damage (e.g., myocardial infarction), muscle injury, or other tissue damage. Chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis or hepatitis, may also elevate AST.

Too little: Low AST levels are not generally a concern and typically indicate normal tissue health.

4. Bilirubin

What it is: Bilirubin is a yellow pigment formed by the breakdown of red blood cells in the liver. It is excreted from the body in bile and urine. Bilirubin is measured to assess liver function and diagnose conditions such as jaundice, liver disease, and bile duct obstruction.

Normal Range:

Total Bilirubin: 0.1 - 1.2 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 0.2 - 1.0 mg/dL

Too much: High bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) can cause jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, bile duct obstruction, hemolytic anemia, or conditions such as Gilbert’s syndrome, where bilirubin is not properly processed.

Too little: Low bilirubin levels are typically not a concern and reflect normal liver function.

5. Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase (GGT)

What it is: GGT is an enzyme found in the liver, bile ducts, and pancreas. It is a sensitive marker for liver and bile duct function, and it is often used to diagnose bile duct obstructions, liver disease, and alcohol abuse.

Normal Range:

Adults: 9 - 48 U/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 10 - 30 U/L

Too much: Elevated GGT levels are often seen in liver disease, bile duct obstruction, alcohol abuse, or the use of certain medications. High GGT is also linked to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and other chronic conditions such as heart disease.

Too little: Low GGT levels are typically not concerning and indicate normal liver and bile duct function.

6. Albumin

What it is: Albumin is a protein produced by the liver and is essential for maintaining oncotic pressure (which keeps fluid in the bloodstream) and transporting hormones, vitamins, and drugs throughout the body. It is often measured as part of liver function tests and to assess overall protein status.

Normal Range:

Adults: 3.5 - 5.0 grams per deciliter (g/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 4.0 - 5.0 g/dL

Too much: High albumin levels are uncommon but may occur with dehydration or excessive protein intake.

Too little: Low albumin levels can indicate liver disease, malnutrition, kidney disease (where albumin leaks into the urine), or chronic inflammation. Severe hypoalbuminemia can lead to edema and other complications.

7. Globulin

What it is: Globulin is a group of proteins in the blood that play various roles in immune function, blood clotting, and liver function. Globulin levels can help assess liver health, immune function, and nutritional status.

Normal Range:

Adults: 2.0 - 3.5 g/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 2.3 - 3.2 g/dL

Too much: Elevated globulin levels can indicate chronic inflammation, liver disease, infections, autoimmune diseases, or certain cancers like multiple myeloma.

Too little: Low globulin levels may suggest liver dysfunction, kidney disease, or conditions that impair protein production or absorption, such as malnutrition.

8. Total Protein

What it is: Total protein measures the combined levels of albumin and globulin in the blood. It is used to assess overall protein status, liver function, and nutritional health. Low or high total protein levels can indicate underlying medical conditions.

Normal Range:

Adults: 6.0 - 8.3 g/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 6.4 - 8.0 g/dL

Too much: Elevated total protein levels can indicate chronic inflammation, infections, or multiple myeloma. High levels may also suggest liver disease or autoimmune disorders.

Too little: Low total protein levels may result from liver disease, kidney disease, malnutrition, or conditions that impair protein absorption or production. Low protein levels can lead to weakness, fatigue, and immune dysfunction.

K. Pancreas Function

1. Amylase

What it is: Amylase is an enzyme produced primarily by the pancreas and salivary glands that helps break down carbohydrates into simple sugars. It is commonly measured to assess pancreatic function and to diagnose and monitor conditions such as pancreatitis.

Normal Range:

Adults: 30 - 110 units per liter (U/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 30 - 90 U/L

Too much: Elevated amylase levels can indicate acute pancreatitis, where the pancreas becomes inflamed and releases excessive amounts of amylase into the blood. It can also suggest pancreatic cancer, gallstones, mumps, or other conditions involving inflammation of the salivary glands. Other causes include gastrointestinal disorders such as peptic ulcers or intestinal obstructions.

Too little: Low amylase levels may occur in chronic pancreatitis, where the pancreas becomes damaged and loses its ability to produce enough enzymes. It can also be seen in liver disease or cystic fibrosis. Low amylase may reduce the body's ability to properly digest carbohydrates, leading to malabsorption and nutrient deficiencies.

2. Lipase

What it is: Lipase is an enzyme primarily produced by the pancreas that helps break down dietary fats into fatty acids and glycerol for digestion. Like amylase, lipase is an important marker for pancreatic function and is commonly measured in cases of suspected pancreatitis or other pancreatic disorders.

Normal Range:

Adults: 0 - 160 U/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 10 - 140 U/L

Too much: Elevated lipase levels are usually a sign of acute pancreatitis. In acute cases, lipase levels typically rise within hours of an attack and can remain elevated for several days. High levels may also indicate other pancreatic disorders such as pancreatic cancer, gallstones, or cystic fibrosis. Non-pancreatic causes can include kidney disease, peptic ulcers, or gastrointestinal obstructions.

Too little: Low lipase levels can suggest chronic pancreatitis or other conditions that impair the pancreas's ability to produce enzymes. This can result in malabsorption of fats, leading to symptoms such as diarrhea, weight loss, and nutritional deficiencies.

L. Thyroid Function

1. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

What it is: TSH is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates the production of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) by the thyroid gland. It acts as a feedback mechanism: when thyroid hormone levels are low, TSH increases to stimulate more production, and when thyroid hormone levels are high, TSH decreases.

Normal Range:

Adults: 0.4 - 4.0 milliunits per liter (mU/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 0.5 - 2.5 mU/L

Too much: Elevated TSH levels (hypothyroidism) indicate that the thyroid gland is underactive and not producing enough thyroid hormones. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include fatigue, weight gain, depression, dry skin, and intolerance to cold. Common causes include Hashimoto's thyroiditis (an autoimmune disorder) and iodine deficiency.

Too little: Low TSH levels (hyperthyroidism) suggest that the thyroid is overactive and producing too much thyroid hormone. Symptoms include weight loss, anxiety, tremors, palpitations, and intolerance to heat. Common causes include Graves' disease (an autoimmune disorder) and thyroid nodules.

2. T3 Total (Triiodothyronine Total)

What it is: Total T3 measures the total amount of triiodothyronine (T3) in the blood, including both the bound (attached to proteins) and unbound (free) forms. T3 is the active thyroid hormone that influences metabolism, heart rate, and body temperature.

Normal Range:

Adults: 80 - 200 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 100 - 180 ng/dL

Too much: High T3 levels are often seen in hyperthyroidism and may cause symptoms like rapid heart rate, weight loss, tremors, anxiety, and excessive sweating. Elevated T3 may occur in conditions like Graves’ disease or toxic nodular goiter.

Too little: Low T3 levels are usually associated with hypothyroidism, which slows down metabolism and causes symptoms such as weight gain, fatigue, constipation, and depression. It may also indicate severe illness or malnutrition (non-thyroidal illness syndrome).

3. T3 Free (Free Triiodothyronine)

What it is: Free T3 measures the unbound, active form of triiodothyronine (T3) in the blood, which is available for use by the body. Free T3 is more accurate than total T3 in assessing thyroid function, as it excludes the T3 bound to proteins.

Normal Range:

Adults: 2.3 - 4.1 picograms per milliliter (pg/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 3.0 - 4.0 pg/mL

Too much: Elevated free T3 levels are seen in hyperthyroidism and can cause symptoms such as increased heart rate, weight loss, anxiety, and irritability. High free T3 levels are often associated with Graves’ disease or toxic multinodular goiter.

Too little: Low free T3 levels are associated with hypothyroidism, leading to slowed metabolism, weight gain, fatigue, and depression. It can also be seen in non-thyroidal illnesses or during fasting and malnutrition.

4. T4 Free (Free Thyroxine)

What it is: Free T4 measures the unbound, active form of thyroxine (T4) in the blood, which is a precursor to T3. Free T4 is a more precise measure of thyroid function than total T4, as it reflects the biologically active hormone available to tissues.

Normal Range:

Adults: 0.8 - 1.8 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 1.0 - 1.5 ng/dL

Too much: Elevated free T4 levels indicate hyperthyroidism and may cause symptoms such as nervousness, weight loss, increased sweating, and heart palpitations. Conditions like Graves' disease and thyroid nodules are common causes of high free T4.

Too little: Low free T4 levels suggest hypothyroidism, which can cause fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and depression. Causes include Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and iodine deficiency. Severe illness or malnutrition can also reduce free T4 levels.

5. T4 Total (Total Thyroxine)

What it is: Total T4 measures the total amount of thyroxine (T4) in the blood, including both the bound and unbound forms. T4 is the primary hormone produced by the thyroid gland and is converted to the more active T3 in tissues.

Normal Range:

Adults: 5.0 - 12.0 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 6.0 - 11.0 µg/dL

Too much: Elevated total T4 levels are seen in hyperthyroidism, often leading to symptoms like restlessness, sweating, increased heart rate, and unintentional weight loss. Graves’ disease, toxic multinodular goiter, and thyroid hormone resistance can elevate total T4.

Too little: Low total T4 levels suggest hypothyroidism, which can result in weight gain, depression, dry skin, and fatigue. This is often caused by conditions such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, iodine deficiency, or damage to the thyroid.

M. Hormones & Reproductive Health

1. Total Testosterone

What it is: Total testosterone measures the overall amount of testosterone in the blood, including both the testosterone that is bound to proteins (like SHBG) and the free, unbound testosterone. Testosterone is crucial for male sexual development, muscle mass, bone density, and overall health. It is also present in women but at much lower levels.

Normal Range:

Men: 300 - 1,000 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dL)
Women: 15 - 70 ng/dL

Optimal Range:

Men: 400 - 800 ng/dL
Women: 20 - 50 ng/dL

Too much: Elevated testosterone levels in men can cause aggressive behavior, acne, hair loss, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. In women, high testosterone can lead to symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), such as irregular periods, hirsutism (excessive hair growth), and infertility.

Too little: Low testosterone in men (hypogonadism) can result in fatigue, low libido, erectile dysfunction, loss of muscle mass, depression, and decreased bone density. In women, low testosterone may cause low libido, fatigue, and mood changes.

2. Free Testosterone

What it is: Free testosterone is the unbound form of testosterone that is biologically active and readily available to tissues. It is often measured alongside total testosterone to assess hormonal imbalances more accurately.

Normal Range:

Men: 5 - 21 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dL)
Women: 0.5 - 3 ng/dL

Optimal Range:

Men: 10 - 15 ng/dL
Women: 0.8 - 2 ng/dL

Too much: High free testosterone levels in men can contribute to aggressive behavior, acne, and fertility issues. In women, elevated free testosterone is often associated with PCOS, leading to symptoms like acne, excessive hair growth, and menstrual irregularities.

Too little: Low free testosterone in men may lead to reduced libido, erectile dysfunction, decreased muscle mass, and fatigue. In women, low free testosterone can contribute to low energy, reduced sexual desire, and mood changes.

3. Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG)

What it is: SHBG is a protein that binds to sex hormones, including testosterone and estradiol, and regulates their bioavailability. SHBG levels help determine how much free, biologically active hormone is available to tissues.

Normal Range:

Men: 10 - 57 nanomoles per liter (nmol/L)
Women: 18 - 144 nmol/L

Optimal Range:

Men: 20 - 40 nmol/L
Women: 40 - 80 nmol/L

Too much: High SHBG levels reduce the amount of free testosterone available to tissues, potentially leading to symptoms of low testosterone, such as fatigue, low libido, and muscle loss in men. In women, high SHBG can result in decreased estrogen activity, contributing to hormonal imbalances.

Too little: Low SHBG levels increase the amount of free testosterone, which can lead to symptoms of androgen excess, such as acne, hirsutism, and irregular periods in women (e.g., in PCOS). In men, low SHBG may result in higher free testosterone levels but may also indicate insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome.

4. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

What it is: FSH is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates reproductive processes. In women, FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles, while in men, it is essential for sperm production.

Normal Range:

Men: 1.5 - 12.4 milli-international units per milliliter (mIU/mL)
Women (follicular phase): 3.5 - 12.5 mIU/mL

Optimal Range:

Men: 3 - 10 mIU/mL
Women: 4 - 9 mIU/mL (follicular phase)

Too much: High FSH levels in men may indicate primary testicular failure or other causes of infertility. In women, elevated FSH levels are often seen during menopause or in cases of ovarian failure.

Too little: Low FSH levels can impair sperm production in men and interfere with normal ovarian function in women, potentially leading to infertility or amenorrhea (absence of menstruation).

5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

What it is: LH is another hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a critical role in regulating reproductive health. In women, it triggers ovulation, while in men, it stimulates testosterone production by the testes.

Normal Range:

Men: 1.8 - 8.6 mIU/mL
Women (follicular phase): 2.4 - 12.6 mIU/mL

Optimal Range:

Men: 3 - 7 mIU/mL
Women: 4 - 10 mIU/mL (follicular phase)

Too much: Elevated LH levels in men may indicate testicular failure, while in women, high LH levels are often associated with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or menopause. Excessive LH can disrupt normal reproductive function.

Too little: Low LH levels in men can lead to low testosterone production, resulting in symptoms like low libido, fatigue, and infertility. In women, low LH can prevent ovulation and lead to irregular or absent menstrual periods.

6. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (Male Only)

What it is: DHT is a potent androgen derived from testosterone and is involved in the development of male characteristics, such as body hair and prostate growth. Elevated DHT levels are often associated with male pattern baldness and prostate enlargement.

Normal Range:

Men: 30 - 85 ng/dL

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 45 - 65 ng/dL

Too much: High DHT levels can lead to male pattern baldness, prostate enlargement, and potentially prostate cancer. Elevated DHT may also contribute to acne and oily skin.

Too little: Low DHT levels may result in reduced body and facial hair, decreased libido, and potentially infertility. DHT deficiency is rare and typically occurs due to hormonal imbalances or certain medications.

7. Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1)

What it is: IGF-1 is a hormone that reflects the activity of growth hormone (GH) in the body. It plays a key role in growth, cell repair, and metabolism. IGF-1 is used to evaluate growth hormone levels and diagnose conditions related to abnormal growth.

Normal Range:

Adults: 83 - 456 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL) (varies with age)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Age-specific (generally within the upper third of the normal range for a given age group)

Too much: Elevated IGF-1 levels may indicate excess growth hormone (acromegaly or gigantism), which can lead to abnormal growth of bones and tissues, insulin resistance, and increased cancer risk.

Too little: Low IGF-1 levels may indicate growth hormone deficiency, which can lead to reduced muscle mass, bone density, and impaired cell repair. It can also contribute to short stature in children and decreased vitality in adults.

8. Cortisol

What it is: Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that helps regulate metabolism, the immune response, and the body’s response to stress. Cortisol follows a daily cycle, peaking in the morning and declining throughout the day.

Normal Range:

Morning: 6 - 23 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Morning: 10 - 20 µg/dL

Too much: Elevated cortisol levels (Cushing’s syndrome) can result from chronic stress, adrenal tumors, or long-term use of corticosteroid medications. Symptoms include weight gain, especially around the abdomen, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, and mood swings.

Too little: Low cortisol levels (Addison’s disease) can lead to fatigue, weight loss, low blood pressure, and weakness. Severe cortisol deficiency can cause an adrenal crisis, a life-threatening condition requiring immediate medical attention.

9. Estradiol (Women)

What it is: Estradiol is the primary form of estrogen in women and plays a crucial role in regulating the menstrual cycle, maintaining pregnancy, and developing secondary sexual characteristics. Estradiol levels fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle.

Normal Range:

Follicular Phase: 20 - 144 picograms per milliliter (pg/mL)
Luteal Phase: 27 - 246 pg/mL

Optimal Range:

Follicular Phase: 50 - 100 pg/mL
Luteal Phase: 100 - 200 pg/mL

Too much: Elevated estradiol levels may be seen in conditions such as estrogen-producing tumors, endometriosis, or hormone replacement therapy. High estradiol levels can lead to symptoms such as bloating, breast tenderness, and mood swings.

Too little: Low estradiol levels can result from menopause, ovarian failure, or disorders of the pituitary gland. Symptoms include hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and increased risk of osteoporosis.

10. Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate (DHEAS) (Women)

What it is: DHEAS is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is a precursor to both testosterone and estrogen. It plays a role in the development of secondary sexual characteristics and supports overall energy and immune function.

Normal Range:

Women (age 20-50): 35 - 430 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL)

Optimal Range:

Women: 150 - 350 µg/dL

Too much: Elevated DHEAS levels in women can be associated with conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), adrenal hyperplasia, or adrenal tumors. High levels can lead to symptoms such as hirsutism (excessive hair growth), acne, and menstrual irregularities.

Too little: Low DHEAS levels may indicate adrenal insufficiency, aging, or chronic illness. Symptoms include fatigue, low libido, and decreased bone density.

11. Progesterone (Women)

What it is: Progesterone is a hormone produced by the ovaries after ovulation and is essential for maintaining the uterine lining for pregnancy. It is also involved in regulating the menstrual cycle and supporting early pregnancy.

Normal Range:

Luteal Phase: 1.8 - 23 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)

Optimal Range:

Optimal (Luteal Phase): 5 - 20 ng/mL

Too much: Elevated progesterone levels may be seen in pregnancy, ovarian cysts, or certain forms of hormone therapy. High levels typically do not cause harmful symptoms, though some women may experience bloating, fatigue, or breast tenderness.

Too little: Low progesterone levels can result in irregular periods, infertility, or difficulty maintaining pregnancy. Insufficient progesterone production can lead to early miscarriage or failure to conceive.

12. Prolactin

What it is: Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates breast milk production after childbirth. Prolactin levels are typically low in men and non-pregnant women but increase during pregnancy and breastfeeding.

Normal Range:

Men: 2 - 18 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)
Women (non-pregnant): 2 - 29 ng/mL
Women (pregnant): 10 - 209 ng/mL

Optimal Range:

Non-pregnant women: 5 - 20 ng/mL
Men: 5 - 15 ng/mL

Too much: High prolactin levels (hyperprolactinemia) may indicate pituitary tumors (prolactinomas), hypothyroidism, or certain medications. Symptoms include galactorrhea (milk production in non-pregnant women or men), irregular periods, and infertility.

Too little: Low prolactin levels are rare but may impair milk production after childbirth in women. Low prolactin in non-pregnant individuals is generally not concerning.

N. Prostate Health

1. Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA)

What it is: PSA is a protein produced by both normal and cancerous cells of the prostate gland. It is released into the bloodstream and can be measured to screen for prostate health issues, including prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and prostatitis. PSA levels generally increase with age.

Normal Range:

Men (Under 50): Less than 2.5 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL)
Men (Age 50-59): Less than 3.5 ng/mL
Men (Age 60-69): Less than 4.5 ng/mL
Men (Over 70): Less than 6.5 ng/mL

Optimal Range:

Men (Under 50): Below 1.5 ng/mL
Men (Over 50): Below 2.0 ng/mL

Too much: Elevated PSA levels may indicate prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate). An increase in PSA levels warrants further testing, including potentially a prostate biopsy, to determine the cause. PSA levels can also temporarily increase due to factors like recent ejaculation, a prostate infection, or even riding a bicycle.

Too little: Low PSA levels are generally not concerning and indicate a healthy prostate. Extremely low levels may be expected after prostate removal (prostatectomy).

2. Free PSA

What it is: Free PSA refers to the portion of total PSA that is not bound to proteins in the blood. Measuring free PSA can help differentiate between prostate cancer and benign conditions, as men with prostate cancer tend to have a lower proportion of free PSA compared to those with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

Normal Range:

Men: Free PSA as a percentage of total PSA, greater than 25% is generally considered low risk for prostate cancer.

Optimal Range:

Men: Free PSA percentage greater than 25%

Too much: A higher percentage of free PSA is generally associated with a lower likelihood of prostate cancer. For example, a free PSA percentage above 25% suggests that the elevated total PSA is more likely due to benign conditions such as BPH rather than cancer.

Too little: A lower percentage of free PSA (below 10%) is more suggestive of prostate cancer. Men with a low free PSA percentage are often recommended to undergo further diagnostic tests, such as a prostate biopsy, to assess for malignancy.

O. Inflammation & Tissue Damage

1. High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein (hsCRP)

What it is: hsCRP is a highly sensitive measure of C-reactive protein, a substance produced by the liver in response to inflammation. hsCRP is used primarily as a marker for systemic inflammation and is often measured to assess cardiovascular risk.

Normal Range:

Low Risk: Less than 1.0 milligrams per liter (mg/L)
Intermediate Risk: 1.0 - 3.0 mg/L
High Risk: Greater than 3.0 mg/L

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Less than 1.0 mg/L

Too much: Elevated hsCRP levels indicate inflammation, which may be due to acute infections, chronic diseases, or inflammation of blood vessels (which increases cardiovascular risk). Chronic elevation is linked to a higher risk of heart attack, stroke, and other cardiovascular events.

Too little: Very low hsCRP levels indicate minimal systemic inflammation, which is generally considered healthy.

2. Sedimentation Rate - Westergren (ESR)

What it is: The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) measures how quickly red blood cells settle at the bottom of a test tube over a specified period of time. A higher rate suggests the presence of inflammation. It is commonly used to assess inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.

Normal Range:

Men: 0 - 15 millimeters per hour (mm/hr)
Women: 0 - 20 mm/hr

Optimal Range:

Men: 0 - 10 mm/hr
Women: 0 - 15 mm/hr

Too much: Elevated ESR suggests inflammation and can occur in conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, infections, and cancer. It is often used as a general marker of inflammation but is non-specific, meaning it does not point to a particular cause.

Too little: Low ESR is generally not concerning and indicates little to no systemic inflammation. However, extremely low ESR can occasionally be seen in conditions such as sickle cell anemia or polycythemia.

3. GlycA

What it is: GlycA is a composite biomarker of inflammation derived from glycosylated acute-phase proteins measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. It provides insight into chronic inflammation and has been linked to cardiovascular risk, insulin resistance, and overall metabolic health.

Normal Range:

Adults: 300 - 400 micromoles per liter (µmol/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: Less than 350 µmol/L

Too much: Elevated GlycA levels suggest chronic inflammation and are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and other inflammatory conditions. High GlycA has been linked to a higher risk of developing heart disease and other chronic conditions.

Too little: Low GlycA levels indicate low levels of systemic inflammation, which is generally protective against cardiovascular and metabolic diseases.

4. Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)

What it is: LDH is an enzyme found in nearly all body tissues. It is released into the bloodstream when cells are damaged or destroyed. LDH is often used as a general marker for tissue damage and is elevated in conditions such as heart attack, liver disease, hemolysis, and some cancers.

Normal Range:

Adults: 140 - 280 units per liter (U/L)

Optimal Range:

Optimal: 150 - 250 U/L

Too much: Elevated LDH levels can indicate tissue damage from a wide range of causes, including heart attack, liver disease, hemolytic anemia, infections, and cancer. The specific cause can usually be identified by measuring specific isoenzymes of LDH.

Too little: Low LDH levels are generally not concerning but can occasionally be seen in patients receiving treatments such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) therapy. Low LDH is generally not a clinical concern.

5. Creatine Kinase (CK)

What it is: CK is an enzyme found primarily in the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles. CK is released into the bloodstream when muscle tissue is damaged. It is commonly measured to diagnose conditions such as heart attacks, muscular dystrophy, and rhabdomyolysis (muscle breakdown).

Normal Range:

Men: 52 - 336 U/L
Women: 38 - 176 U/L

Optimal Range:

Men: 50 - 200 U/L
Women: 40 - 150 U/L

Too much: Elevated CK levels suggest muscle damage, which may result from strenuous exercise, trauma, heart attack, muscle diseases like muscular dystrophy, or conditions such as rhabdomyolysis. CK levels are also elevated in some metabolic disorders and autoimmune diseases like polymyositis.

Too little: Low CK levels are usually not concerning and may simply reflect low muscle mass or lack of physical activity. Low CK is generally not a clinical issue.

P. Heavy Metals Toxicity

1. Arsenic

What it is: Arsenic is a naturally occurring heavy metal that can be toxic at elevated levels. It is found in the environment, including in contaminated water, food (especially seafood and rice), and air. Chronic exposure to arsenic can lead to serious health problems, including skin disorders, cardiovascular disease, and an increased risk of cancer.

Normal Range:

Blood: Less than 10 micrograms per liter (µg/L)
Urine (non-seafood exposure): Less than 50 µg/L

Optimal Range:

Blood: Less than 5 µg/L
Urine: Less than 10 µg/L (after excluding seafood intake)

Too much: Elevated arsenic levels indicate exposure to contaminated water, food, or industrial sources. Chronic exposure to high levels of arsenic can cause skin lesions, hyperpigmentation, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and various cancers, particularly of the skin, bladder, and lungs.

Too little: Arsenic is not required for normal bodily function, so low or non-detectable levels are considered optimal and healthy.

2. Cadmium

What it is: Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal found in industrial emissions, cigarette smoke, contaminated food, and some fertilizers. Long-term exposure to cadmium can lead to kidney damage, bone demineralization (osteoporosis), and an increased risk of cancer, particularly lung cancer.

Normal Range:

Blood: Less than 1 µg/L
Urine: Less than 0.5 µg/g creatinine

Optimal Range:

Blood: Less than 0.5 µg/L
Urine: Less than 0.2 µg/g creatinine

Too much: Elevated cadmium levels can result from occupational exposure (e.g., battery manufacturing, metal refining), smoking, or consumption of contaminated food and water. High cadmium levels can cause kidney damage, bone loss, and increased cancer risk, particularly of the lungs and prostate.

Too little: Cadmium is not needed by the body, so low or undetectable levels are optimal and healthy.

3. Lead

What it is: Lead is a highly toxic heavy metal that can cause serious health issues, particularly in children. Exposure to lead typically occurs through contaminated water, lead-based paint, contaminated soil, and certain types of occupational exposure. Lead accumulates in the bones and tissues, causing neurological, developmental, and cardiovascular problems.

Normal Range:

Adults: Less than 5 µg/dL
Children: Less than 3.5 µg/dL

Optimal Range:

Adults: Less than 2 µg/dL
Children: Less than 1 µg/dL

Too much: Elevated lead levels can cause neurological damage, cognitive impairment, developmental delays, high blood pressure, kidney dysfunction, and anemia. Long-term exposure can lead to lead poisoning, especially in children, affecting their cognitive development and causing behavioral issues.

Too little: Lead is not required for bodily functions, so the goal is to keep levels as low as possible. Low or non-detectable levels indicate a healthy and safe environment.

4. Mercury

What it is: Mercury is a toxic heavy metal that can be found in various forms, including elemental mercury, inorganic mercury, and organic mercury (e.g., methylmercury, which is found in fish). Mercury exposure can cause neurological and developmental damage, kidney toxicity, and other health issues.

Normal Range:

Blood: Less than 10 µg/L
Urine: Less than 5 µg/L

Optimal Range:

Blood: Less than 5 µg/L
Urine: Less than 2 µg/L

Too much: Elevated mercury levels are typically the result of exposure to contaminated seafood, occupational hazards, or dental amalgams. High mercury levels can lead to neurological symptoms (e.g., tremors, memory problems), developmental delays in children, and kidney damage. Chronic exposure to mercury can cause irreversible neurological damage and impair cognitive and motor functions.

Too little: Mercury is not needed by the body, so low or non-detectable levels are considered optimal and healthy.

5. Nickel

What it is: Nickel is a metal that can be found in the environment, food, jewelry, and industrial settings. While small amounts are typically tolerated by the body, excessive exposure to nickel can lead to allergic reactions, respiratory problems, and, in some cases, cancer.

Normal Range:

Blood: Less than 1.5 µg/L
Urine: Less than 2 µg/L

Optimal Range:

Blood: Less than 1 µg/L
Urine: Less than 1 µg/L

Too much: Elevated nickel levels can result from occupational exposure (e.g., metal plating, mining), ingestion of contaminated food or water, or prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing items (e.g., jewelry). High nickel exposure may cause dermatitis, respiratory issues, and, in extreme cases, an increased risk of lung and nasal cancers.

Too little: Nickel is not essential for human health, so low or non-detectable levels are optimal and indicate minimal exposure.

Thanks for reading!

Thank you for taking the time to explore the intricate world of blood biomarkers with us. We hope this guide empowers you to better understand your own health metrics and how they relate to your overall well-being, performance, and longevity. Optimizing your health is an ongoing journey, and we're here to provide the knowledge and tools to help you take action.

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